Differences of Skills in Work and Skills in Social Settings

Differences of Skills in Work and Skills in Social SettingsWHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN learning IN THE PERSON, SKILL IN THE JOB AND SKILL IN THE SOCIAL SETTING AND WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT.A quarter century ago acquisition was in general referred to as manual dexterity (tool usage or control) and to some understanding of underpinning bodies of theory and knowledge associated with the usance of particular trades or occupations. Hence, there has been growing priority of softer social acquirements and several(prenominal)al attri stilles such as manner, deportment, appearance, dress sense, accent, ability to get on with passel and self confidence (Payne, 1999 Grugulis et al, 2004). As one employee reports one farm attitude (Calligham and Thompson, 2002240). These attributes and attitudes are being referred to as skills (Payne, 1999 cited in Stephen Bach, 2007).One of the most difficult to describe and hard to define theory is skill (Warhurst, Grugulis and Keep, 2004), in a sur vey carried out by (Francis and Penn, 1994), they concluded that different occupational groups go away categorize skill in different ways, which suggests that a persons conception of skill is mostly based on his or her own experiences of employment. in that respectfore, this essay aims at defining the approaches of skills and amyotrophic lateral sclerosiso what these approaches are and why it is fundamental in analyzing skill.WHAT IS SKILL?Skill is be as the expertise, ability or competence to undertake specific activities often acquired through formal instruction or work experience (Brown et al, 2001).The dictionary interpretation of skill reveals the complexity of the concept. At the core of all definitions is the idea of competence or attainment-the ability to do something well. The word encompasses both mental and physical proficiency meaning skill implies understanding or knowledge, it also implies physical dexterity. In distinguishing amid skill as mundane accomplishmen t and skill as virtuosity will help give theoretical insights into the mechanisms that underlie skilled activities, failure to distinguish between the two senses of the word can lead to conceptual confusion (Attewell, 1990).Attewells look indicates four distinct sociological notions of skill which yields different images of skill.PositivistEthno-methodologicalWeberianMarxistPositivismThis refers to those who treat skill as an attribute amenable to qualitative amount and believe that this attribute has an objective character independent of the observer. With this assumption, at the outset positivists are faced with two issues First, should skill be treated as a measureable attribute of persons or business lines/tasks (Spenner, 1983)? Second, should apparently diverse or qualitatively different skills be rendered commensurate and hence measurable? Is there a yardstick that underlies vary skills? (Attewell, 1990).Ethno-methodologicalThis is completely at odds with the positivists a ssumptions about complexity, routine, and conscious analysis, it offers a view of human activity and hence, skills. The core of this purview is the idea that all human activity, dismantle the most mundane, is quite complex. Things such as walking, crossing the road and carrying on a conversation that everyone does, are amazing accomplishments requiring a complex coordination of perception, movement, and decision, a myriad of choices, and a multitude of skills (Garfinkel, 1969).The Weberian SchoolThis school tries to understand the conditions under which occupations are socially demarked as skilled and the processes by which some jobs come to command high standing than others. This school points that tasks complexity becomes important as it creates uncertainty as to whether and how the task can be accomplished. This then becomes the core around which practitioners build claims to skill, even up when their knowledge and techniques are modest (Attewell, 1990).The Marxist SchoolThi s school enters skill from three areas which are in the jade theory of value, in debates concerning the labor aristocracy, and in the theory of alienation and technological change. However it would be misleading to suggest that classical Marxist has a well articulated theory of skill as such. Marx and Engels writings provide theoretical hints and some neo-Marxists have built upon these. Hence, many contemporary Marxists treat skill as a common sense stratum which does not require explication, while other neo-Marxists treatments of skill frequently shade into either positivist or social constructionist thinking (Attewell, 1990).APRROACHES TO THE ANALYSIS OF SKILLThere are three approaches to the analysis of skill as shown in (Table 1).Skill in the personSkill in the jobSkill in the prospectFocusPrincipal Area of ConcernTypical Method of AnalysisTypically Adopted byPerson case-by-case attributes acquired throughEducation cogencyhomeworkExperienceQuestionnaire surveysAptitude test / ExperimentsEconomistsPsychologistsJobTask requirementsComplexityDiscretionJob analysisJob evaluationOccupationalPsychologistsManagement theoristsindustrial / EmploymentRelations theoristsSettingSocial relationsCase studies of industries and occupationsEthnographic studies of workplacesSocial historiansSociologistTable 1 Skill approaches (Source Noon M. Blyton P., 2002)Skill in the personIn this aspect, the skill centers on the quality possessed by the single(a) through knowledge, dexterity, judgment, linguistic ability which is accumulated as a result of education, cookery and experience (Noon and Bylton, 2002). Skill that focuses on the person often attempts to identify individual attributes and qualities and seek to measure these by the use of aptitude test under experimental conditions. Psychologists agree with this approach and view it as an independent variable (Vallas, 1990). Hence, questionnaires might be distributed to assess the individuals education, culture and expe rience which could serve as a deputy for skill- a method mostly used by economists (Cockburn, 1983).Some commentators have argued that there is a need to broaden the definition of skill in the person by labeling certain personal characteristics as skills. Warhurst, Grugulis and Keep (2004) points that attitudes, character traits and predispositions are being described by employers as skills require and they lacking in the labor foodstuff. Lafer (2004) argues that a skill is a quality learned or developed by individuals that will secure them a living, however, many of the new skills such as punctuality, appearance, manner e.t.c. are not skills because alone, they cannot secure an individual a living wage although they might be prerequisite for getting a job in the first place and are also required in order of battle to remain in employment. Lafer points that the consequence of broadening the definition of skill means the concept of skill in the person becomes increasingly meaning less.Skill in the person is very essential in the labor market, as Becker (1964) argues that in a market economy, an individuals human capital will determine his or her value as an employee. An individual can choose to increase their human capital through victorious advantage of educational opportunities and training or they can as well choose to ignore these opportunities and as such lower their relative value in the labor market. This approach is typified of human capital theorist, they point that the responsibility for success in work lies with the individual and they raise the notion of meritocratic society, where individual political campaign is rewarded (Noon and Blyton, 2002).Skill in the jobIn this case, the focus is on assessing the skill required by the job rather than the skill possessed by the individual doing the job. Sociologist agrees with this approach and view skill as a dependent variable (Vallas, 1990). Attention is placed on the complexity of the tasks required to perform a job and the extent of discretion in the job which is of keen interest to individual/employment relation theorist.According to Noon and Blyton, (2002), the more complex the task required by the job, the more skilled the job is. There is however, need to measure the extent of complexity so as to arrive at a skill level. Hence, different jobs could be reflected in systems of status and remuneration which takes the form of job evaluation schemes.Discretion is of great importance in a job. Discretion involves choosing between alternatives required by an activity. The greater the number of decisions required by an activity, the greater the skill level. The more the employee is able to exercise his/her judgment, then the more skilled a task may be said to be. Therefore, examining the amount of rules employees are obliged to follow will serve as an assessment of the skill level the more rules, the less scope for discretion and the lower their skill will be judged to be. Discr etion is the key element of job skill. It grants workers the space to develop their expertise and to exercise judgment and features heavily in academic attempts to theorize skill (Grugulis, 2007).Feature of Skilled Work Identified as ImportantMost Likely to be Identified as Important byApprenticeshipOlder, male, manual workers (particularly those processing apprenticeship qualifications)TrainingYounger, female, public-sector service employees (particularly those processing higher level qualifications)QualificationsWomen (particularly in retail distribution). Younger respondents people with lower level qualification uplifted AbilitiesMenPeople with higher level qualificationExperienceNo specific groupTable 2 Based on Francis and Pen (1994). The survey comprised of nine hundred and eighty seven adults aged between 20 and 60, and was undertaken in Rochdale, U.K. in 1986. (Source Noon M. And Blyton P., 2002)Education, apprenticeship, training and qualification all focus on developing a nd maintaining individual skill. Cockburn (1983) and Littler (1982) have argued that skill is also an aspect of jobs and work can be designed to make use of demand, develop and deploy skills just as it can also minimize the need for skill (Grugulis, 2007). When individual possess skill in the job it may enhance ecesisal benefits. It ensures consistency of harvest-feast work is been completed quickly and satisfactory. Workers with appropriate skill will know about the product they are producing and make decisions on how they might best work or judge the quality of their labor.It is important to note that as individuals gain knowledge of the organization they work in their level of skill increases by seeing the way their system operates, experience problems been solved successfully and learn which of their colleagues to approach with certain requests. Felstead et als (2000) analysis of survey data reveals that even when respondents have held the same job for five years there is stil l an increasing demand for skills suggesting that workers gain in skills and experience over time.In addition, skill in the individual and skill in the job are closely linked. Hence, skill is important to an employer because an employer cannot employ an individual that does not have the skill required in the job.Skill in the settingThe definition of skill in the social setting is Cockburns 1983 third element. Individual status or group may protect skill, in same way as skill itself confers status. This means to an extent, skill, status and control are necessarily linked expertise may require control over work and this brings with it higher status. Those aspects of social life that do not relate with skill but confer to status, impacts on the way skill is been perceived (Grugulis, 2007).Skills are socially and politically negotiated and it reflects the power and influence of diverse interest groups. As Sadler (197023) has observed, skill is to a considerable extent determined by soc ial factors present in the work situation and in the occupational culture at large and hence includes the evaluations placed on particular kinds of activity and on particular classes of individual and the actions of organized pressure groups directed at safeguarding the earnings and job security of particular trades and professions (Noon and Blyton, 2002). This then means skill in the social setting is important as it create room for protectionism certain groups want to protect their skills in order to form a particular status.Social setting can be viewed from the notion of social closure which is one fundamental concept of sociology as delimit by Weber (1947) and elaborated by Parkin (1979) and Kreckel (1980).Social Closure or Skilled StatusThe total process of occupational social closure is quiet of three interacting sub-processes (see Fig.1).An ideological process in this case individuals recognise a shared set of values, beliefs and reinforce these symbolically.A political pr ocess, whereby group members act collectively, combines their resources in pursuit of common goals.A material process, whereby members of the group seek to appropriate the tools and technology to the work process and control or influence the work organisation. endingAs a result of the different theoretical perspective of skill, there has been little consensus about the way skill should be assessed and, indeed different perspective tend to base their argument upon different concepts of skill (Attwell, 1990 Spenner, 1990 Vallas, 1990 Gallie, 1991). This has made the issue very controversial.However, the different meaning of skill centers on the three approaches above- skill in the person, skill in the job and skill in social setting. Hence, there are still unanswered questions about skill. What is the generally acceptable definition of skill? as work is changing continually, hence, demanding different abilities. Are people becoming deskilled or up skilled?REFERENCESAttwell, P. (1990). What is Skill? Work and Occupations. Vol. 17, No. 4, pp 422-443.Brown, P Green, A. and Lauder, H. (2001). High Skills. Oxford University Press.Keep, E. (2005). Skills, training and the quest for the Holy Grail of influence and status in Bach, S. (ed) Managing Human Resources Personnel Management in Transition 4th edition Oxford Blackwell.Grugulis, I. (2007). Skills, Training and Human Resource Development. New York Palgrave Macmillan.Noon, M. and Blyton, P. (2002). The Realities of Work. New York Palgrave Macmillan.Vallas, S.P. (1990). The concept of skill a critical review Work and Occupations Vol 17, No. 4, pp 379-398.Warhurst, C., Grugulis, I. And Keep, E. (2004). The Skills that Matter. New York Palgrave Macmillan.