Imperessions and Analysis of the Exhibitions Visited Essay

Imperessions and Analysis of the Exhibitions Visited - Essay Example It is a comic book about a kid Andy who happened to have power every time he puffs a cigarette. He also discovered a costume that could instantly kill anything. Along with him is his sidekick Louie who is prone to bullying of which the â€Å"death ray† gun conveniently extinguishes the bully in the school. Although the art form itself was rendered in two dimensional and not as intricate with today’s three dimensional cartooning, David Clowes’s cartoons were revolutionary during his time because it served as the seminal art form of the later cartoons that followed. Without his art and his cartoons, we would not have our marvel comics and marvel movies To be honest, I was really surprised that the museum accommodated it in their exhibition because typically, museums just exhibit the really old art and Clowes cartoons and its plot are very contemporary. But still, it is a good move on the part of the museum because it drew younger spectators like me to be interested it in art. For example, after visiting the cartoon exhibition of Clowes, I also happen to see the early landscape painting of California. They were breathtakingly beautiful and sometimes so much to the point of photo realism that you would not immediately notice that they were rendered in oil. But beyond the beauty of the landscape painting, I also learned about the early history of California. Through the paintings, I discovered that the early history of California was about gold mining particularly during the â€Å"Gold Rush†. It made me curious and later I googled it at home to find more about this particular history of California. Without those paintings, I would not have been interested about California’s â€Å"Gold Rush† days. I was also interested in â€Å"The 1968 Exhibit†. Although I must admit that the presentation was initially boring, it turned out to be very interesting once we learned what transpired during that particular era. What seemed to be boring was in fact the â€Å"coolest† era in history because almost all of the â€Å"cool stuff† we enjoy today was revolutionized during that era ranging from rock and roll, hippie, feminism, labor rights to world peace. The exhibition was basically a narrative of events that led to the social upheaval that happened during the 1970s that shaped the cultural and political landscape of America that can still be felt today. These changes have major implications for our daily lives because the tumult that the exhibition was trying to communicate was the germinal ideas that lent impetus to social and cutural explosions that once were considered as non-mainstream. Social concerns such as feminism, gay rights, organic farming, community gardening movements, environmental justice and other identitarian social movements can be said to have originated in this period of social experiment which were morphed and absorbed by the mainstream society that survive in its margins until today. It is the period where once marginalized sectors of society woke up from their slumber and begun to assert themselves. Perhaps it is the environment of the 1960s that galvanized people to assert themselves which transformed the prevailing values and even reoriented and reshaped the history itself. It is also this period where previous domination of the monied elite in California was first resisted that perhaps led to the series of events that can be best characterized as contrarian and political radicalism. It may have been just a decade but

Importance of Communication in Daily Life

Importance of Communication in Daily Life To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way we perceive the world and use this understanding as a guide to our communication with others. Anthony Robbins Communication Is Integral To Human Life Communication is deeply intertwined with the human existence. It is an integral part of it. One cannot think of human life without communication. Can you imagine what would happen if you are not allowed to talk for a long time? You would feel suffocated. In personal life, we need to communicate to deal with various concerns and problems of daily life. In professional life also, it is communication that helps us to build healthy relations and credibility with co-workers. Only speaking/talking is not communication. Communication can take place in many forms. Sometimes, we communicate by talking about our ideas, thoughts or emotions; at other times, we may wish to communicate through the written word or even non-verbally. Whatever form we choose, getting the message across is what communication is all about. Communication is a process that is dynamic, continuous, and irreversible but at the same time, it is reciprocal in nature. It is an ongoing process. Roughly, we can define communication as a shared meaning between two or more individuals. The shared meaning arises out of the individuals experiences, background, education and training. Similarity in experiences, background, training, etc. makes communication successful between individuals. Communication helps us to understand others. The inability to communicate can lead to a lot of problems both personally and professionally. Imagine a day without communicating! We can instantly feel the void it would create. Can we ever forget that it is our ability to communicate verbally that distinguishes us from animals? Communication helps form a powerful bond among people and makes us social beings. Besides, knowledge is not the sole requirement for the achievement of success. A person may possess good knowledge, but his/her performance will be evaluated largely on the basis of his/her ability to communicate. Therefore, if you are a good communicator, you have better chances of success in life and in business. 1.2 COMMUNICATION FOR BUSINESS Communication has become indispensable today. Human activity will come to a standstill if there is no communication. All human transactions become possible only through communication. It is the life-blood of every business organization. Especially in todays globalized market economy, effective communication is vital to the success and survival of any organization. Businesses need people with good communication skills because communication is an essential part of the kind of work that is done in business organizations. It extends across all areas of business, including managerial, technical, clerical and social positions. In present times, several factors have contributed to the significance of communication. They are- faster means of communication because of scientific and technological advancements shrinking geographical boundaries because of the availability of faster means of transport growth of the multinational companies that has resulted in the creation of a globalized market economy generation of highly advanced management techniques as a result of the growing importance of professionalism in the management of business the information revolution that has brought with it highly sophisticated networking technologies multiplication of systems of communication at all levels of organization because of specialized knowledge that has lead to departmentalization advancements in the field of social sciences such as in psychology and in sociology that have created an awareness about the human mind and behaviour and how they influence communication Communication undertaken by a business organization with the purpose of achieving certain specific goals is known as business communication. In fact, business communication is a special type of communication undertaken to meet the needs of the organization. Powerful concepts in modern management like participation, motivation, involvement revolve around communication. According to R. Ludlow, Business communication is a process of transfer of information and understanding between different parts and people of a business organization. It consists of various modes and media involved in communication interchanges. Effective communication is needed for growth and development of any organization. H.G. Hicks has rightly pointed out- Communication is basic to an organizations existence from birth of the organization; when communication stops, organized activity ceases to exist. Improving communication skills improves the chances for success of a business. Effective communication brings progress and prosperity to it. Moreover, in this age of specialization, planning, production, sales, advertising, finance, welfare, etc. are handled by different departments. In absence of effective communication, there would be a serious problem of co-ordination among these departments and there would only be chaos and confusion in the organization. Communication is also quite significant keeping in mind the growing importance of human relations and human resource management in todays world. Communication helps a manager in developing meaningful relationships with the subordinates, changing their attitudes, boosting their morale and soliciting their cooperation. Communication links people together to achieve common goals. It is also required to maintain good public relations. Thus, executives are often expected to give speeches and interviews to the media in order to project a favourable image of the organization. Effective communication is required to handle various crises and conflicts of interests in an organization. It is also needed in order to impart adequate training to the employees in handling latest technology. Subordinates often resent the introduction of changes in the methods of working. This poses a challenge to the management to educate the employees so that they can smoothly adapt to the dynamic character of the organization. They also have to work at alleviating the fear that these changes are likely to generate unemployment. Thus, effective communication can help in changing the negative attitude of the employees towards technological advancement. It facilitates meetings which play an important role in the functioning of an organization. Effective business communication depends not only on the skills of the sender of the message but also on the skills of the one who receives that message. Thus, one may say that communication is not an end in itself; rather, it is a means to achieve an end. 1.3 PRE-REQUISITES OF COMMUNICATION Now the question is- What is communication and how it can be accomplished? What do we require to carry out communication? Hence, prior to looking at the meaning of communication, it would be helpful to know how we prepare for it. For instance, you want to write a letter. What all do you need for it? A piece of paper. A pen. A desk for support. Is there anything else that you require besides these things? Certainly you do. You need to dwell on three important things- 1. Purpose 2. Content 3. Skills These three precede all speaking or writing. WHAT TO COMMUNICATE- CONTENT Information Observation/ Receive by Select/Reject Think and Understanding Attention listening or as per your evaluate results into by reading interest, need the information knowledge or expectation This is how information is processed in to being knowledge. Knowledge generates in you the confidence to communicate. If you are well prepared with the content, then half the work is done. It is the urge to express something that begins communication. It can be an idea, an emotion, an opinion or some information. Without this basic idea/need, there can be no communication. However, we do not communicate whatever comes to our mind immediately. There is a need to plan- what to communicate, how to communicate and whom to communicate it to. We do not communicate without a purpose; therefore, it is essential to answer these questions before actually communicating. This helps us to communicate effectively and to get a desirable response from the person with whom we are exchanging our ideas. WHY TO COMMUNICATE- PURPOSE Speakers/ will hear/see Purpose of Writers Listener/ Communication Expectation Reader will listen/read will understand will act/respond THE PURPOSE IS FULFILLED Purpose is the primary pre-requisite of all meaningful communication. The sender initiates communication with some purpose i.e. expectation. S/he expects the receiver to hear/see his message, to listen/read it attentively, to understand it and to act/respond to it. When the receiver gives feedback or performs the expected action, then communication is said to be successful. However, the response would depend on various factors like concentration, physical surroundings and psychological makeup of the receiver. The next question is- how do we communicate? Communication does not just mean speaking or writing. We are communicating even when we smile or shrug our shoulders. However, when we decide to communicate, we need some medium through which to transfer that idea to the other person. HOW TO COMMUNICATE- SKILLS You may possess good knowledge and may be ready to convey it but if you do not know how to do it, it would not be effective. Poor speaking or writing skills is a real hurdle in communication. Speaking Skills Read aloud: Take a small piece of writing from a newspaper, magazine or a book and read it out loud. This will help you to know how you speak- your voice tone, pitch, etc. Observe: Observe how people speak- their pronunciation, accent, intonation, stress, style, rhythm, etc. Try to emulate the speaking style of good speakers. This will help you to improve your own style of speaking. (For a detailed note on speaking skills, writing skills and non-verbal communication, refer Chapter 2 Types of Communication.) Just the idea/information that the communicator has, the media of transmission available and the presence of the receiver are not enough for communication to take place. We need a proper context and an atmosphere where there are no hindrances in the communication process. Does communication end after the idea is communicated? As stated earlier, we communicate with a purpose. Expression of the idea/information is half the work done. But communication is considered complete only when there is some response from the receiver. Only then we can say that the purpose of communication is fulfilled. Communication involves three basic activities on the part of both the participants i.e. the sender and the receiver. On the senders part, they are- Thinking to develop the content to form a message Speaking/Writing to convey the message to the other person Feeling to make the message persuasive On the receivers part, the activities include- Listening/Reading to absorb the idea/information contained in the message Interpreting to understand the meaning of the message Responding to convey the acceptance or the disagreement with the message Communication has always been an important part of human life. Language and the ability to express ourselves using that language come to us spontaneously. And the need to communicate is so inherent in human nature that we hardly realize that effective communication skills can be acquired and honed. There are four basic communication skills- speaking, writing, listening and reading. They always work in the following adjacency pairs- Speaking/writing is handled by the sender of the message and listening/reading by the receiver of the message. Mastering these four skills is very essential if one wants to become an effective communicator. As children, we learn to speak by listening first. Thus, listening is the first skill that we acquire as we develop the language instinct. Then follows the reading skills once we start schooling and lastly we learn the writing skills as a part of our formal education. Thus, learning language/s and the related communication skills follow a systematic process. It does not happen accidentally and instantaneously. Despite of this, people often turn out to be poor communicators as most of us tend to take its importance for granted. Most of the time, we fail to achieve our objective while we communicate. This happens because of our failure to convey our ideas in a precise and clearly understandable manner. There may be a lack either in the content of the message or in the way in which it is conveyed to the intended audience, or both. The point is we do not normally focus much on what to communicate, when to communicate and how to communicate. Also, we need to consider another equally important aspect why to communicate i.e. the purpose. Thus, it is very important for us to recognize and study the essential elements involved in the process of communication in order to become effective communicators. Every aspect of life, whether personal, social or professional, involves communication. The basic meaning of the word communication is- an exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behaviour. The meaning of the word has not undergone much change. However, the ways and means of communication have changed greatly as a result of technological and other socio-cultural developments in recent times. Thus, these advancements have added numerous new dimensions to the communication process, which has become more complex over a period of time. It, thus, calls for a detailed study of the various components that are involved in it in order to be able to communicate effectively. 1.4 DEFINING COMMUNICATION In order to understand the term communication, it would be useful to have a look at some definitions given by the experts. The word communication is derived from the Latin word communis which means to transmit, to impart, to exchange, to share, or to convey. Communication means the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium. (Oxford English Dictionary) Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning. (Business Dictionary) According to Newman and Summer, Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons. Keith Davis states Communication is a process of passing information and understanding from one person to another. F.G. Meyer defines communication as the intercourse by words, letters or messages, the intercourse of thoughts or opinions. It is the act of making ones ideas and opinions known to others. In the words of Theo Haimann, Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others. According to C.G. Brown, Communication has been defined as the transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits confidence or becomes an exchange or interchange. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver. William Scott defines communication as a process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals. Louis A. Allen says, Communication is the sum of all the things which a person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, and understanding. According to McFarland, Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is a process by which meanings are perceived and understanding is reached among human beings. These definitions explain communication as a process of passing information and understanding (Keith Davis) a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding (Business Dictionary) the act of making ones ideas and opinions known to others (F.G. Meyer) the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others (Theo Haimann) the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions (William Scott) a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, and understanding (Louis A. Allen) a process by which meanings are perceived and understanding is reached among human beings (McFarland) Thus, these definitions adequately highlight and express in concise form the important features of the process of communication. In short, we can define communication as a process in which two or more elements of a system interact in order to achieve a desired outcome or goal. (Larry L. Barker and Deborah A. Gaut, Communication; 2001) 1.5 FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION On the basis of the above discussion, let us now discuss certain important features of the process of communication. 1. It is an exchange of ideas. Communication is the process through which an exchange of information takes place. It is the sharing of information, ideas, concepts and messages. 2. Two parties are involved in it. In communication, the exchange of information takes place between two or more persons. This implies that there are minimum two people involved in the communication process at any given time. The one who initiates the exchange is the sender of the message (speaker/writer) and the one who receives and interprets it is the receiver of the message (listener/reader). 3. It is a two-way process. Communication is a two-way process of exchanging ideas or information. One person alone cannot carry out communication. When you communicate, there has to be a receiver or an audience that would reciprocate. Then only your communication can be complete. Thus, communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and non-verbal messages. It is considered effective only when it achieves the desired reaction or response from the receiver. The response may be positive or negative. In case of absence of any response, communication is incomplete. Thus, communication is effective only when a concise and clear message is delivered well, received successfully, understood fully, and responded to promptly. 1.6 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION There is no human action that is done without any purpose. Even the simplest and most natural action like breathing has a purpose- to stay alive. Communication is also always carried out with some purpose. (Refer 1.3 Pre-requisites of Communication) Communication begins with two-fold objectives or purposes that occupy the senders mind: Immediate or Primary to convey or to share Objectives information of Communication Ultimate or Secondary to convince or to persuade people To inform and to persuade are the two basic purposes (goals) that are ever present in the mind of a communicator. Sometimes, he seeks only to inform, as in scientific writings; sometimes, his goal is to persuade the reader, as in journalistic writings; and oftentimes, he wants both to inform and to persuade the reader, as in sales letters, advertisements, etc. Communication is vital to business. The communication activities of an organization fall into three broad categories: 1. Intra-organisational Communication FORMAL Business 2. Inter-organisational Communication Communication 3. Personal INFORMAL Communication 1. Intra-Organisational Communication It is communication within an organization. It is done to implement business plans. It takes many forms like orders, instructions, reports, emails, etc. 2. Inter-Organisational Communication It is communication that a business organization does with people outside the organization i.e. with other companies, customers, clients, general public, etc. It takes the form of planned publicity to improve its image and public relations with the help of business messages, advertising, displays, etc. The success of a business depends on its ability to fulfill the customers needs. Besides providing services, it must communicate effectively with outside people and groups for its success. 3. Personal Communication It is communication without a specific business objective i.e. without an ulterior motive or purpose. Man is a social animal, therefore we have a compulsive need to communicate even when we have nothing substantial to convey. Such communication also occurs in the workplace. For example, personal conversations, gossip, Grapevine phenomenon, etc. If one is not allowed to engage in such casual communication, it may lead to frustration and other such psychological problems. (For a more detailed discussion on corporate communication, refer Chapter 7 Formal and Informal Networks of Communication.) The primary objective of communication is to convey or share information. Business organizations have to deal with a large and varied amount of information on a daily basis in order to conduct various business activities. Thus, proper flow of information helps them to make right decisions. Another equally important objective of communication is to persuade people to accept a point of view or to change their attitude and accept a new or modified attitude. Persuasion is achieved through logical arguments or an emotional appeal to accept the change. Advertisements are an apt example of the persuasive nature of communication. Essentially, all communication is a deliberate and intentional act of persuasion. A communicator wants the reader not only to understand the message but also to be influenced as intended by him. (For a detailed discussion, refer 10.6 Persuasive Communication, Chapter 10 Nature of Attitude and its Influence on Communication) Communication helps to convey information from experts to trainees in an organization for the purpose of educating or training them to handle new technology or to adapt to the changes in the work environment. Communication is an effective tool in the hands of the managers to motivate and to boost the morale of the employees. This enables the organization to achieve higher productivity. Through advice and counseling, the management can help the employees in dealing with their emotional problems as well as problems pertaining to maladjustment and also to give career guidance. By means of letters of appreciation, special mention in reports, minutes of meetings, etc., the management can appreciate the work of the employees. In case of strikes, lockouts, and dismissal of individual employees or disciplinary action against them, the management uses communication channels to issue warnings. Communication also helps in co-ordination of intra-organisational activities, inter-organisational transactions, business transactions, and commercial transactions by means of conferences, meetings, advertisements, requests, suggestions, reviews, and discussions. Without communication, coordinating the activities of different persons engaged in running a business is a remote possibility. The management and the subordinates come closer through communication. Communication promotes cooperation and good industrial relations as it conveys feelings, ideas, opinions, and viewpoints of one party to the other party. The policies and programs formulated by the organization to guide the workforce have to be conveyed to those who are responsible for the execution of work to achieve the organizational objectives. Only effective communication can translate the plans into actions. It aids teamwork by enabling people to work together. It helps perform basic management functions like instructing, coordinating, staffing, planning, etc. Thus, these are the few important objectives of communication in the context of business organizations. So far, we have discussed what comprises communication and the significance of communication in our personal, social as well professional life. We have also highlighted some of the fundamentals of communication. Let us now analyse the process of communication and see how it is accomplished. 1.7 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION Process is a series of things done to achieve something. Communication also follows a process. Communication begins when the sender/encoder identifies the need to communicate some idea/concept/information. He then encodes/formulates it into a message using a medium which can be understood by the receiver/decoder of the message who in turn processes it in his mind and responds to it. When the decoder understands the message completely, fidelity of communication is said to be 100% and the communication process is said to be complete. (Refer David Berlos Model of Communication) Thus, communication is a two-way process. Fidelity of Communication Idea Idea Concept Encoder Medium Decoder Concept Message Message Information Information Fidelity of Communication David Berlos Model of Communication If necessary, the receiver may send a reply or may respond or react to the message. This response or reaction is also known as feedback. But sometimes, there may be no response at all from the receiver even if it is required. Absence of feedback can be attributed to either of the following reasons- a) the message does not reach the receiver or b) the receiver fails to understand the message. Such situations may arise due to the presence of some factor/s that can- a) obstruct the message from being transmitted or b) distort the meaning of the message. The factors that hamper the flow of communication are known as barriers to communication. (Refer Chapter 4 Resolving Barriers to Communication) Communication occurs in five phases and it consists of the following eight components which are inter-related: Idea Sender/Encoder (Speaker/Writer) Encoding Message Channel and Medium Receiver/Decoder (Reader/Listener) Decoding Feedback Let us now discuss in detail the various stages and elements involved in the communication process. PHASE I- IDEATING: 1) Idea Every message whether oral or written has its origin in an idea that germinates in the mind of the sender of the message. Every idea refers to some context. Context is a common frame of reference within which the sender and the receiver communicate with each other. Thus, the idea or information that the sender wants to convey to the receiver is the source of the message in the communication process. 2) Sender/Encoder The person who initiates the communication process is referred to as the encoder. The process of communication begins with the sender who identifies the need to communicate. He may want to inform or to persuade or to influence or to make the receiver take a particular course of action. The sender must have a clear picture in his mind about what he wants to communicate and should accordingly select symbols, words, images, etc. that would best convey his ideas to the receiver. He must identify his audience and formulate the message in such a way that the receiver understands fully what he intends to convey and interprets it within the same context. PHASE II- ENCODING: 3) Encoding Encoding takes place when the sender formulates his idea into a message to be transmitted to the receiver, using a series of symbols- verbal and/or non-verbal, written or oral. The sender should encode his message keeping in mind the purpose of communication and he should select words or symbols so as to make the receiver understand the communication correctly and to achieve the expected feedback. The sender as well as the receiver should attach the same meaning to the symbols or words, otherwise communication would fail. Thus, proper encoding is essential for successful communication. 4) Message That which is encoded, i.e. the idea/concept/information, is the message. Message is an idea transformed into words. It can be expressed in different ways depending on the subject-matter, purpose, audience, personal style and cultural background of the sender. It can be transmitted effectively only when it is well-formulated, clear, and complete in itself. PHASE III- TRANSMITTING: 5) Channel and Medium An appropriate medium chosen to send the message is known as channel. It is the vehicle which facilitates the sender to convey the message to the receiver. Channel is the system used to transmit a message, whereas medium is one of the forms or types used under that system. For example, oral communication is a channel and telephone conversation (a form of oral communication) is a medium. There are three broad channels of communication and there are several media under each- Channel Medium 1. Oral face-to-face conversation, telephone conversation, audio-tapes, voice mail, etc. 2. Written letters, memos, reports, manuals, notices, circulars, questionnaires, minutes, email, fax, etc. 3. Audio-visual cinema, television, video-tapes, video conferences, video chat, etc. Thus, there is a difference between medium and channel. The sender should decide the best possible channel and medium to transmit the message. The selection of an appropriate channel/medium would be influenced by the following factors- a) the nature of the message, b) the urgency of the message, c) the number of receivers, d) the cost factor, and e) the relationship between the sender and the receiver. PHASE IV- RECEIVING: 6) Receiver/Decoder The person who receives the encoded message is referred to as the decoder. He is the intended audience of the message. The receiver may be an individual or a group of individuals. As communication is a two-way process, the receiver is as important as the sender of the message. Communication will not be complete in the following situations- a) in the absence of the receiver, b) if the message does not reach the right/intended receiver, and c) if the receiver does not understand the message. A receiver may be a listener or a reader or a viewer of the message. He not only receives the message but also tries to understand, interpret, and perceive the total meaning of the message, as was intended by the sender, and gives necessary feedback. 7) Decoding It is a process by which the receiver interprets the message and translates it into meaningful information. The meaning of the message is the sum total of the meanings of the words (symbols) together with the tone and the attitude of the sender as reflected by his choice of w

The Mantle of the Prophet Essay -- Islamic History, Mothhahedeh

Roy Mottahedeh is a professor of Islamic history at Harvard University. He has written widely in the history of Islam and religion. The Mantle of the Prophet is one of the books that Mottahedeh wrote. In this book, Mottahedeh covers different aspects that include Islamic faith, Iranian city of Qom, traditions derived from the history of Iran, political change in Iran and secular Islamic learning among other issues. Ali Hashemi and Parviz studied together in the same elementary school courtyard. However, each of them took different turns. This paper is a review of The Mantle of the Prophet by Roy Mottahedeh. It will discuss the similarities and differences of the ideologies of Hashemi and Parviz and their oppositions to the Shah. It will also discuss their social backgrounds and cultural influences on their outlook of the world. The book begins with a detailed description of Qom, an Iranian city where Ali Hashemi, the main point of reference, in the book was born. Mottahedeh also describes the Shi’ite faction of the Islamic faith that entails learning and tradition, in Iran. Mottahedeh managed to introduce readers to political climate, history and tradition from the middle of the twentieth century. Mottahedeh recounts the life of Ali Hashemi from his childhood through his education into adulthood. Ali Hashemi is the contemporary mullah of Qom. The book portrays Ali Hashemi as an alias of a mullah in the University of Tehran. This presents Ali Hashemi as a scholar just like Parviz. However, Hashemi is still engrossed in Islamic religion unlike Parviz. Mottahedeh used Hashemi to bring a clear picture of culture and history in Iran, in different times. Mottahedeh used Hashemi to create a scenario that depicts trends and issues that i... ...ries and the 1979 revolution. The author presents Iran through the leadership of mullahs and shah tradition. The book has rich information covering the history of Iran. Mottahedeh managed to develop an impressive book that satisfies the curiosity of a reader wanting to understand the history, culture and political atmosphere of Iran through the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth century. Roy Parviz Mottahedeh and Ali Hashemi represent two views of Islamic learning and Iranian history and culture. While Ali Hashemi represents a religious view of Islamic learning and history of Iran, Parviz represents a secular view of Islamic learning and ambiguity of culture in Iran. The two views help to bring out the ways in which Islamic religion and culture influenced political atmosphere, in Iran especially at a time when politics in Iran was shaped by religion.

Cuneiform And Hieroglyphics Essay

The invention of writing was an important part of the development of Sumer and Egypt. There are many similarities and differences to the writings of each of these civilizations. The Sumerians developed a writing called cuneiform. Cuneiform is the oldest written language in existence. Each picture represents a living or nonliving thing. Cuneiform was written on clay tablets with a wedge-shaped instrument called a stylus. Henry Creswicke Rawlinson was the first person to decipher the meanings of cuneiform. He did so in 1846. Cuneiform eventually spread throughout the region and was adopted by many other early civilizations. The Egyptians developed a writing that they named hieroglyphics. The word hieroglyphic means ?sacred inscriptions? because they were often written on the walls of temples. Hieroglyphics were created about 5000 years ago. There are not any vowels, only consonants. There is also no punctuation. In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was discovered. The Rosetta Stone was the secret to discovering the meanings of hieroglyphics. On the Rosetta Stone there were three sections of print, each saying the same thing but in different languages. At the top, the paragraph was written in hieroglyphics. Second, it was written in Demotic. Lastly the paragraph was written in Ancient Greek. By reading the ancient Greek word and names, the other paragraphs could be deciphered. Twenty-three years after it?s discovery, Jean-FranVois Champollion figured out what the hieroglyphics meant. Hieroglyphics are pictures that represent a letter. In both civilizations, mostly only scribes knew how to read and write. Being a scribe was a very honorable profession. People who were to become scribes went to school for many years starting at a young age. The profession of being a scribe was passed down through families; if a boy?s father was a scribe, he would become one also. Because children needed to be taught to read and write when they were to  become scribes, schools were created. Eventually, these schools became more than centers of just learning the art of reading and writing, but they also became centers of learning of botany, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. People becoming more literate and more knowledgeable helped greatly in the development of the civilizations. Both writings, cuneiform and hieroglyphics, were invented to improve the record keeping of the civilization. By having a written language, Egypt and Sumer could kept records, draw up contracts and official documents, record laws and legal judgments, and record sales. As time went on, being able to write also enabled people to write down formulas, procedures, legends, prayers, and hymns. Even though there were many differences between cuneiform and hieroglyphics, there were many similarities. These similarities caused writing to be important in the growth of Sumer and Egypt.

From slavery to freedom Essay

Ironically, Fredrick Douglas all but snatched the Emancipation Proclamation from Abraham Lincoln’s hands to make of its flat rhetoric a sharpened call for freedom and equality. Douglass had never regarded the ending of slavery as enough, either for himself or for his people; it had to be the beginning of an embrace of the black individual’s fullness as a person, a beginning that would point straight toward an end, within quick reach. â€Å"For Douglass, each gain in the struggle, and the Emancipation Proclamation decidedly was one of the greatest, simply meant that America must move on to the next gain. † (Mcfeely, 1991) Douglass’s commitment to abolitionism, black elevation, and women’s rights outstripped his commitment to other social reforms. His major social reform passions — black liberation and women’s liberation — underscored his egalitarian humanism. The logic and motivation for his social reform odyssey derived essentially from his quest for morality, order, and progress. Even though his interrelated social reform enthusiasms were integral to his vision of a moral, orderly, and progressive civilization, he nonetheless evinced a keen sense of the need for priorities among them. (Martin, 1984) In retelling his journey from slavery to freedom in the middle of the decade, less than a year after the Cleveland emigration convention, Douglass was responding implicitly to the arguments of Delany and other pro-immigration supporters that in the foreseeable future blacks would remain slaves, or de facto slaves, in the United States — arguments that would appear to have gained added currency with the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. Central to Douglass’s continued hopefulness about blacks’ prospects in the United States, despite such obviously negative developments, was a renewed commitment following his 1851 break with Garrison to the informing ideals of the nation’s original revolutionary documents. In many ways during this period, Frederick Douglass became the prototypical American success: a peerless self-made man and symbol of success; a fearless and tireless spokesman; a thoroughgoing humanist. The most striking and enduring aspect of Douglass’s heroic legacy in his day — its classic, even archetypical aura — has persisted down to the present. Although often viewed and used differently by others, the heroic and legendary Douglass clearly personifies the American success ethic. The key to his eminently evocative essence is twofold. Douglass’s influence had a far reaching affect. In April 1855, Uriah Boston, a prominent figure in the black community of Poughkeepsie, New York, wrote a letter to Douglass in reference to his newspaper. Boston expressed concern over the increasingly separatist tone of prominent black abolitionists like William J. Wilson and James McCune Smith. Responding to pieces they had written in the black press, Boston criticized the two for â€Å"urging the colored people to preserve their identity with the African race. † He feared that any claim of distinct national identity on the part of black people might lend credence to â€Å"the propriety and necessity of African colonization†Ã¢â‚¬â€the dreaded scheme of the American Colonization Society. For Boston, blacks could never constitute a nation within the nation. â€Å"You cannot mix nationalities,† he wrote. â€Å"No man is a proper citizen of one certain country while he claims at the same time to be a citizen of any other country. †

The Application of Seven Communication Traditions

The Application of Seven Communication Traditions The Phenomenological Tradition It is a theory that deals with personal experience. People have a way of interpreting the things around them and coming up with a formidable experience (Griffin 2009).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Application of Seven Communication Traditions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The attributes can develop even from the time a person is young (Adler Rodman 2003). After examining things and testing them, then one can make a personal judgment. ‘An example of personal experience is about love’ (Littlejohn Foss 2011, p.75). One can understand love by personally experiencing it. One can also gain this experience from the level of contact with something or people determine the meaning it represents to someone (Adler Rodman 2003). Language also becomes the most important vehicle for learning. It has a way of developing meanings to certain things. People experience the world b ecause of the way language expresses it to be. ‘There are things that people know because of the associated labels’ (Griffin 2009, p.210). For instance, when one buys goods that may be in a box, there are labels that indicate which side should face up (Adler Rodman 2003). For other goods, there are even labels that help the user to know which part to open. ‘The way a person interprets a message is central to the already available perception or phenomenological thought’ (Littlejohn Foss 2011, p.73). The thoughts to interpret some message become active whenever similar messages are available. It is then the process of going back to the previous personal experience and using it to interpret the present information (Craig Muller 2007). The Classical Phenomenology expresses truth through direct experience. For some information or something to be entirely true, then one has to put away any biases (Craig Muller 2007). The phenomenology of perception clarifies that people know things only because of their personal relationships to those things. In as much as the world affects people, so do people affect the world through their personal knowledge (Macnamara 2013). Hermeneutic phenomenology adds communication to this definition. It is the words and languages that cause things to have a different meaning in life (Griffin 2009). The Quitline Services Campaign is a progressive way that the government is using to reduce and or stop people from smoking (Miller 2005). The smokers can have time to talk to the campaign officials about their feelings. They can also have time to listen to what others have gone through and decide if they want to remain the same or change their behaviors.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The campaign can establish a means through which the people can assist each other through dialogue and personal as sistance to colleagues to encourage quitting (Craig Muller 2007). They can also have a forum through which the people can be writing their personal experience through social networks and the website. The Cybernetic tradition A family is not just a collection of individuals related by blood (Macnamara 2013). A family has an organized system of relating with each other. There are ways in which they interact with one another and influence each other towards making certain decisions (Craig Muller 2007). They have a way in which they communicate with family members to pass a specific message in a specific way. There are also changes that happen within and to the family after some time. They make things to change and people to behave in a certain way. Cybernetics is, therefore, the tradition of complex systems whereby the complex elements influence one another (Griffin 2009). There is the involvement of physical and biological processes. Some behavioral and social attributes also contri bute to cybernetics (Struever 2009). A system results from the contribution of very many others parts that form together something that is more than the collection of the initial parts. In a system, there is the aspect of interdependence that binds the parts together (Craig Muller 2007). One part must rely on the service of the other to make a reasonable impact. Systems also have the attribute of self-regulation and control. The reason for doing so is to maintain stability and to succeed in attains the desired goals. ‘The system can be complex and highly adaptable’ (Craig Muller 2007, p.280). When passing information, the government needs to ensure that the piece of information is highly influential so that it can erode the previous perspective no matter how strong it is (Griffin 2009). The government must not ignore the social and culture factors because they form a system that needs direct attention (Adler Rodman 2003). It may not be the best method to address indi vidual smokers, but it can be a way to form new habits in the smokers. The government can develop a new culture in the reforming and reformed smokers.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Application of Seven Communication Traditions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Sociopsychological Tradition Every individual has different parts of the body that come together to make whole human beings. The interactions between these individual parts are what makes one a whole person. The same applies to the human being (Craig Muller 2007). One cannot become a solitary being without being part of a certain family, community, and or a country. The social interaction between these people is what binds them together. Persons are entities with characteristics that lead them to behave in independent ways. Most of the sociopsychological theories are cognitive. They offer guidance on how people process information (Adler Rodman 2003 ). The human mind is so powerful that it has the capability of grasping, accommodating, and changing information to make the individual to adapt to certain kind of behavior (Struever 2009). Communication scientists are still in a dilemma as to how the human mind functions. They are still doing research to come up with clear explanation. The tradition has three branches that include the behavioral, the cognitive, and the biological (Craig Muller 2007). The behavioral theories concentrate on how people behave in communication situations. There is a relationship between what one says and what one does. It guarantees repetition of behavior if there is a reward that motivates them and helps the to continue the way one behaves. The cognitive theory focuses on the patterns of thought. It is how people, acquire, store, and process information that leads to a certain behavior. The mental operations also control what one does (Griffin 2009). The biological scientists have come to believe tha t most of what people do result from the biological traits. They may not come from learning or any situational factors (Adler Rodman 2003). Dissonance can help the smoker to stop smoking. The government can find some explanations on how to make these people remodel their thoughts towards smoking (Littlejohn Foss 2011). The government can find some psychologists to work with the team so that they can understand the individual smokers before engaging them in the desired change (Adler Rodman 2003). The Sociocultural Tradition It is a tradition that puts more emphasize on the identity of a person (Adler Rodman 2003). Every individual belongs to a certain group of people.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One may be a student, a Christian, a Muslim, and a Hispanic (Craig Muller 2007). The sociocultural approaches theory appeal to the understanding of the people, their norms, and rules. They engage the people as belonging to a given culture. Community or Society comes from some connections that include communication. It is the social interactions that enable people to make meanings of things (Miller 2005). Smokers would always find a way to communicate. When they share cigarettes, they begin relationships that go a long way. Sometimes when they meet they start discussing events and matters that concern their colleagues (Carey 2009). The government can use such interactions to build new relationships and pass a strong message. Because they keep meeting other smokers during their daily routines, the message can spread far and wide (Pernot 2009). Another way is to put them into groups (Carey 2009). One group can comprise of the smokers who are unable to stop smoking because of their per sonal choice. The second one can include those who volunteer to quit smoking (Griffin 2009). Another group can be for those who have quitted and many more (Struever 2009). It would depend on how they categorize them. Those who have quit can be useful in government adverts giving others ideas on how to quit and live a healthy life (Craig Muller 2007). The Critical Tradition Critical communication theory supports the tradition by coming up with the message that gives direction on how to control tobacco (Carey 2009). It also provides messages that would reach out to the smokers to make them stop doing so. The Critical political economy theory gives the governing bodies like the governments the upper hand in stopping the habit (Littlejohn Foss 2011). In short, the government is the one with all the power and, therefore, it can control it the way it seems well. However, it must use its moral obligation in a way that it promotes good health and peace (Adler Rodman 2003). The government can use its power in a positive way to help, support, and manage the menace. It has the available media channel to do its work (Pernot 2009). Through the media, they can construct and spread new and important ideas to the people (Carey 2009). They can use symbols and pictures to force the smokers to let go of their habit. The smokers may think that they are making their personal choice (Griffin 2009). However, most of the tobacco companies have resources to counter what the government does so that they can stay relevant (Craig Muller 2007). They may challenge the government’s decision through their messages and advertisements through the same media. It is upon the government and its agencies to put forward a forceful message (Carey 2009). The Rhetorical Tradition The theory dates back to very many years I the Greek history. It has to do with using words without putting emphasize on the action that somebody should take (Littlejohn Foss 2011). Sometimes it can relate to what politicians do when they are looking for votes. It can relate to public speaking, teaching, and even preaching (Littlejohn Foss 2011). It originally was important for persuasion (Craig Muller 2007). It was an art that involved putting arguments into constructive sense and making the speech. Later it became the process of adjusting ideas to people and people to ideas. It is the human symbol. Due to adjustments, it has now evolved to include the use of symbols to affect others (Carey 2009). It focuses more on the speaker and the way the speaker says things rather what they say (Pernot 2009). The health sector may use benevolent rhetoric to help people improve their health. People, therefore, believe that the intention of the user is good (Adler Rodman 2003). There is also conversion rhetoric that can become useful to change the attitude of the people towards something (Adler Rodman 2003). It is the way the preacher or the motivational speaker can engage people to help them choose a superior position over what they have been doing (Craig Muller 2007). It could be the best method that the government can use (Struever 2009). But faced with the anticipated reaction from the smokers, it could only make matters worse (Carey 2009). There are people who would still listen and think that the information is helpful to them. Sometimes a good speech by an influential person like an opinion leader can make a difference. It is upon the government and the government agencies to formulate the policies that would guide the way forward. Some family members can be very helpful. References Adler, R Rodman, G 2003, Understanding human communication, Oxford University Press, New York. Carey, J 2009, Communication as culture, Routledge, New York. Craig, R Muller, H 2007, Theorising communication: readings across traditions, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California. Griffin, E 2009, A first look at communication theory. 7th ed. McGraw Hill, New York. Littlejohn, S Foss, K 2011, Theories of human communication. 10th ed. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California. Macnamara, J 2013, The 21st century media revolution: emergent communication practices. 2nd ed. Peter Lang, New York. Miller, K 2005, Communication theories: perspectives, processes and contexts. 2nd ed. McGraw Hill, Boston. Pernot, L 2009, New chapters in the history of rhetoric, Brill, Leiden. Struever, N 2009, The history of rhetoric and the rhetoric of history, Ashgate, Farnham.

Shrm and Strategic Fit Essays

Shrm and Strategic Fit Essays Shrm and Strategic Fit Paper Shrm and Strategic Fit Paper Introduction ‘Strategic human resource management (SHRM) is concerned with the development and implementation of people strategies which are integrated with corporate strategies and ensure that the culture, values and structure of the organization and the quality, motivation and commitment of its members contribute fully to the achievement of its goals’ Armstrong (1991, p. 81). While human resource management (HRM) focuses on the potential and actual productive value of ‘human resources’ (HR) to an organization success, SHRM takes a more long-run focus by emphasizing the need of HR plans and strategies to be formulated within the framework of overall organizational strategies and objectives, and to be responsive to the changing nature of the organizations external environment. The emphasis of SHRM is on strategic integration, which is matching HRM strategies to business strategy. Refer to Appendix 1 for the characteristics of SHRM. Figure 1: Strategic alignment between HRM and its internal and external environment. Source: Nankervis, Campton and Baird (2002, p. 41) ‘SHRM is a model of practice, which like all models, require interpretation and adaptation by HR practitioners to ensure the most suitable alignment or fit between HR and business strategies and plans’ Nankervis, Compton and Baird (2002, p. 42). Figure 1 above shows the strategic alignment of HRM and internal and external environment. Refer to Appendix 2 for the reasons for HR strategies. Figure 2: Gaining competitive advantage through SHRM Source: Fottler, Phillips, Blair and Duran (1990) Figure 2 provides an outline for determining and focusing on desired outcomes and anticipating essential HRM actions required for successful implementation of a company’s business strategy. This process stretch management thinking about HR and influence decisions affecting people. ‘The strategic approach to HRM includes: ?Assessing the organization’s environment and mission ?Formulating the organization’s business strategy ?Assessing the HR requirements based on the intended strategy ? Comparing the current inventory of HR in terms of numbers, characteristics, and HRM practices with respect to the strategic requirements of the organization and its services or product lines ? Formulating the HR strategy based on the differences between the new requirements and an assessment of the current inventory ? Implementing the appropriate HR practices to reinforce the strategy and achieve competitive advantage’ Fottler, Phillips, Blair and Duran (1990). Strategic staffing Staffing is defined by Mondy and Noe (2005, p. ) as ‘the process through which an organization ensure that it always has the proper number of employees with the appropriate skills in the right job, at the right time, to achieve the organization’s objectives’. There are many different types of decisions that have to be made relating to an organization staffing requirements. Organizations need to decide upon replacing existing staff, providing training to the staff, selecting people who can adapt to the culture of the organization and continuing and inevitable change, promoting, transferring, demoting and releasing people from the workforce when making strategic staffing decisions. Strategic staffing is the process of implementing a plan of action to secure the needed talent through recruitment, selection, promotion and transfer. Strategic staffing need to be implemented for organizations to get the right people at the right time for achieving the goals and objective of the organization. Nankervis, Compton and Baird (2002, p. 79) stated ‘HR planning is to try to ensure that organizational objectives are met through the effective utilization of the human resource of the organization, taking into account changing circumstances within and outside particular organizations’. The staffing function encompasses the implementation of the HR planning process. Strategies like internal growth make it vital for organizations to make strategic staffing decisions. Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Wright (2006, p. 74) mentioned ‘Growth requires that a company constantly hire, transfer, and promote individuals, and expansion into different markets may change the necessary skills that prospective employees must have’. To gain a competitive advantage this makes is important for organizations to realize the staffing needs and make strategic staffing policies in alignment with the organizational strategies. When staffing process is carried out strategically it ensures managers that the organization’s human resources would consist not only of educated or skilled workforce. Skilled and educated workforce can contribute to the effective and efficient performance and productivity of organizations as this would help organizations to achieve a competitive advantage. Strategic performance management Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Wright (2006, p. 330) defined performance management as ‘the process through which managers ensure that employees activities and outputs are congruent with the organization’s goals’. The aim of performance management is to establish a culture in which employees take responsibility for continuous improvement of business processes and their own skills and contributions. Performance management is central to gaining competitive advantage. Performance management have three parts, defining performance, measuring performance and feeding back performance. Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Wright (2006, p. 330) stated ‘performance management measures performance through performance appraisals, which is the only one method of for managing employee performance’. Performance management has come to encompass much more than just appraisals. ‘A major trend in performance management is that while employee appraisals are the heart of performance management, organizations are now integrating a number of closely related functions including compensation, succession planning and goal management into the performance management process’ Loucks (2007). This holistic approach enables HR professionals to manage talent and supporting strategic goals to achieve competitive advantage. The strategic purpose of performance management links employee activities to organizational goals and objectives. Performance appraisals can be used to motivate and improve performance of employees. By identifying internal strengths and weaknesses managers can focus on areas where there is need for improvement to make an organization to be productive to achieve the goals and objectives. Anthony, Kacmar and Perrewe (2002, p. 355) mentioned ‘a well designed performance appraisal system can encourage individuals to work together as a team. If this is an organizational goal, it must face several challenges in designing and implementing such a system’. An effective performance management can help managers to implement strategies. Performance evaluations will have greater impact on strategy implementation when evaluators make meaningful distinctions among different levels of performance. ‘In a highly competitive knowledge-based economy, performance management is taking its place in boardrooms across the country. Faced with pressures including the aging workforce and skills shortage, executives are becoming more involved in the performance management process as they realize that well-executed performance management strategies can help them get better results for the company’ Loucks (2007). As Loucks mentioned the strategic importance of performance management are mounting. There is need for organizations to follow systems that elicit job performance that is consistent with the organization’s goals and strategies as it helps companies to gain competitive advantage. Strategic human resource development (SHRD) Noe (2005, p. 45) defines strategic training and development as ‘learning-related activities that a company should take to help achieve its business strategy’. SHRD is about improving and widening the skills of employees by training and development, by helping people to grow within the organization, and by allowing them to make better use of their skills and abilities to attain the strategic goals and objectives. The Figure 3 below is a model that shows the processes of strategic planning that begin by identifying business strategy. Next, strategic training and development initiatives that support the strategy are selected. Interpreting these strategic training and development initiatives into actual training and development activities is the next step of the process. The final step involves the identifying of measures used to determine if training helped contribute to goals related to business strategy. Figure 3: The strategic training and development process Source: Noe (2005, p. 43) The strategic training and development initiatives are based on the business environment, an understanding of the company’s goals and resources, an insight of potential training and development options. Noe (2005, p. 45) mentioned ‘strategic training and development initiatives provide the company with road map to guide specific training and development activities. They also show how the training function will help the company reach its goals (and in doing so, show how the training function will add value)’. Refer to Appendix 3 for the strategic training and development initiatives and their implications. SHRD’s focus is first on the strategic level, which deals with overall aims and objectives and formulation of plans and policies. Secondly this interconnects to managerial level focusing on the process by which the organization obtains and allocates resources to achieve its strategic objectives. Finally it is linked to the operational level, the hands on and day to day processes of managing and organizing of work. Leopold, Harris and Watson (2005, p. 59) explained ‘Thus SHRD may be considered as a range of culturally sensitive interventions linked vertically to business goals and strategy, and horizontally to other HR and business activities, to actively encourage and support employee learning, commitment and involvement throughout the organization’. Investigating training needs is used in combination with environmental scanning and assessment of external forces and internal strengths and weaknesses of an organization to anticipate or respond to indentified challenges and opportunities. Such reactions maybe rooted in the here-and-now of skills deficit analyses and meeting gaps. This is assuring that employee development is ‘fit for purpose’. Leopold, Harris and Watson (2005, p. 353) stated ‘ ‘fit for future’ agenda maybe responding to anticipated skills needed and gaps and is also part of a wider reflection of changes in the labour market, for example attracting potential employees into areas where there are perceived likelihood of skills shortage’. Leopold, Harris and Watson (2005, p. 353) also stated ‘ Much of the language associated with increasing access to ‘learning opportunities’ through workplace activities is linked to increasing the (for-profit) organization’s competitive advantage. Language such as enhancing sustainability increasing efficiency and effectiveness; of increasing commitment of employees; of creating learning environment where unique skills of employees can be exploited for current needs and for the long-term survival of the company’. Strategic compensation and reward In the development of a pay system and reward systems, several policies must be made. Three of the most important are pay level policies, pay structure policy and types of rewards offered. Anthony, Kacmar and Perrewe (2002, p. 398) stated ‘an organization’s pay level is simply the average wage paid for a specific group of jobs. Pay level is important because if influence both organization’s ability to attract and retain competent employees and its competitive position in the product market. Pay level policy refers to how an organization’s pay level compares with its competitor’s pay level’. An organization’s compensation system should be consistent with the overall strategy of the organization. Success depends on displaying consistent strategy supported by complementary organization structures, designs and management process. The two major strategic initiatives that occur today are growth and retrenchment. Anthony, Kacmar and Perrewe (2002, p. 04) mentioned ‘Firm’s growth mode would focus on employee performance and especially on external performance. This would force firms to pay attention to external competitiveness and equity. Total compensation packages would be oriented towards incentives and would be driven by recruitment needs’. Figure 4: Framewo rk for strategic pay design Source: Williams (1999) To develop pay practices intended to become best, an organization must first recognize the importance of building reward and recognition practices within a framework that ultimately addresses both the extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of employee recognition and reward. Williams (1999) explained the framework using the Figure 3 ‘this framework begins with the organizations strategic business objectives and then considers company culture, values, and performance measurement capabilities as critical elements in the overall design strategy. Programs are designed to motivate performance aligned with critical business objectives and reward contribution and results in ways that are meaningful to employees and consistent with company values’. When designing a pay system it is vital for organizations to take a note of the relationship between pay and employee performance when planning strategies for achieving and sustaining competitive advantage. Anthony, Kacmar and Perrewe (2002, p. 419) stated ‘equity theory proposes that employees examine the relationship between their outcomes from the job (such as pay, job satisfaction, recognition and promotion) and their inputs (such as education, skill, and effort). Dissatisfaction probably does not occur if positive inequity (the person feels over-rewarded)’. Satisfaction will lead to productivity that is the key to competitive advantage. So it is necessary for organizations to formulate strategic compensation and reward systems and implement it for achieving their goals and objectives. Refer to Appendix 4 for further understanding of strategic rewarding and how Southwest Airlines design and implement rewarding strategies to achieve its goals and objectives and to be a successful competitor in today’s competitive environments. Importance of SHRM HRM today has taken a wider role in overall organizational strategy. HRM plays a vital role in creating and sustaining competitive advantage of an organization. There is a growing need for organizations to practice SHRM because of the evolving changes that businesses need to adopt to be successful in achieving its short and long term strategic goals and objectives in the competitive environments that it exists in. Nankervis, Baird and Compton (2002. p. 22) stated the roles of SHRM to be ‘responsive to highly competitive workplace and global business structures; closely linked to business strategic goals; jointly conceived and implemented by both line and HR managers and focused on quality, customer service, productivity, employee involvement, teamwork and workforce flexibility’. This shows the benefits of SHRM and suggests that by successfully implementing SHRM, the organization goals and objectives can be met to achieve competitive advantage. ‘The bridge between HR strategy and HR functions is the formulation of human resource plan (HRP) that incorporate the desired outcomes of HR strategies, are responsive to continual changes in industry environments and can be operationalized through efficient and effective HR functions’ Nankervis, Baird and Compton (2002. p. 79). For SHRM to be successfully implemented it is necessary to follow a process of SHRP. SHRP can be said to be the foundation of SHRM. Nankervis, Baird and Compton (2002. p. 79) ‘HRP allows the HRM functions to position itself to take the best advantage of fluctuations in the economy or labour market. The likely effects of future economic, social and legislative conditions, or organizational changes, can be converted from constraints and pressures to challenges and opportunities’. SHRP therefore can help businesses to seek advantages from the limiting factors while implementing strategic plans. For example if organizations make a decision to downsize, it might lead to loss of specialist staff and valuable intellectual capital. It might even lead to poor corporate image that lead to breakdown of psychological contract between employers and their staff which result in poor performance and loss of competitiveness. Downsizing is seen as a strategic HR tool to shape the organizations future with a well prepared HR strategy. If SHRP is not followed while implanting strategic plans it can lead an organization to loose its competitive edge. Nankervis, Baird and Compton (2002. p. 0) mentioned ‘the failure to adequately plan for an organization’s human resource, can result in losses in efficiency and sustainable costs to the organization, through unstaffed vacancies, expensive replacement training, over hiring or fragmented career management’. Nankervis, Baird and Compton (2002. p. 80) also mentioned ‘by SHRP which focused in retraining, multi-skilling, or e arly retirement campaigns reduces the high financial costs (e. g. outplacement fees, termination and superannuation payments) and the adverse effects on employee morale of poor planned redundancies’. Conclusion As effective HRM practices are strategic, contributing to the goals and objectives of organizations, SHRM has shown to enhance organizations performance by contributing to employee and customer satisfaction, innovation, productivity, development of favorable reputation and profitability. Employees today are trying to learn new things and organizations are adapting characteristics of learning organizations to address the issues of globalization and changes revolving around like technological changes. HRM functions are interrelated with one another making it vital for organizations to take a holistic view in strategy formulation and implementation to reach the organizational strategic goals and objectives to achieve and sustain the competitive advantage. WORD COUNT: 2642 List of References Books Anthony, W. P. , Kacmar, K. M. and Perrewe, P. L. (2002), Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach, 4th edition, South Western Thomson Learning, Ohio, U. S. Armstrong, M. (1991), A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice, Kogan Page, London, U. K. Leopold, J. , Harris, L. and Watson, T. 2005), The Strategic Managing of Human Resources, Prentice Hall, London, U. K. Mondy, R. W. and Noe, R. M. (2005), Human resources Management, 9th edition, Pearson, New Jersey, U. S. Nankervis, A. , Compton, R. and Baird, M. (2002), Strategic Human Resource Management, 4th edition, Thomson, Australia. Noe R. A. (2005), Employees Training and Development, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, U. S. No e, R. A. , Hollenbeck, J. R. , Gerhart, B. and Wright, P. M. (2006), Human Resource Management: Gaining a Competitive Advantage, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, U. S. Journals Fottler, M. D. Phillips, R. L. , Blair, J. D. and Duran, C. A. (1990) ‘Achieving Competitive Advantage through Strategic Human Resource Management’, Hospital Health Services Administration. (last viewed on 22nd august 2007). http://proquest. umi. com/pdf/b20ab77d0af6f502d6fa5273feb65c6d/1187785739/share2/pqimage/irs2/20070822075858556/4858/out. pdf Loucks, P. (2007), ‘Plugging into performance management’ Canadian HR Reporter. Toronto (last viewed on 22nd August 2007). http://proquest. umi. com/pqdweb? index=11=1227887641=1=4=3=PROD=PQD=309=PQD=1187875162=63584 Singh, P. (2002), ‘Strategic reward systems at Southwest Airlines’, Compensation and Benefits Review, Saranac Lake (last viewed on 22nd August 2007) http://proquest. umi. com/pqdweb? index=9=113196055=1=1=4=PROD=PQD=309=PQD=1187868971=63584 Williams, V. L. (1999), ‘Compensation done the right way’, Vol. 78, Costa Mesa, (last viewed on 22nd August 2007) http://proquest. umi. com/pqdweb? index=9=47187924=1=1=4=PROD=PQD=309=PQD=1187862655=63584 APPENDIX 1: Characteristics of SHRM A longer term focus – an inclusion of multiple-year strategic plans for human resource use is often considered the first step in the evolution of a strategically oriented HRM function. New linkages between HRM and strategic planning have emerged as a critical element in many implementations, while a two-way linkage describes a more proactive approach where HRM exerts influence on strategy formulation as well Proposed linkages between HRM and organizational performance – most models of SHRM include the proposition that HRM plays a key role in the achievement of strategic goals. Since the expected outcome of company strategies is an improvement in the firm’s economic value, HRM must thus directly contribute to the firm’s ‘bottom line’ in order to be judged effectively. Inclusion of line managers in the HRM policy-making process – the recognition of HRM’s strategic importance may make it more of a line management responsibility, particularly in areas involving the selection and compensation of managers. A CEO of a large trucking company echoed this sentiment to us when he told us that ‘HRM is too important to be left to the HRM department’. Source: Nankervis, Campton and Baird (2002, p. 3) APPENDIX 2: Why human resource strategy? ?Defines opportunities and barriers for achievement of business objective. ?Prompts new thinking about issues; orients and educates participants and provide a wide perspective. ?Tests management commitment for actions; creates a process for allocating resources to specific program and activities. ?Develops a sense of urgency and commitment to action. ?Establishes selected long-term courses of action considered to be of high priority over the next two to three years ? Provides a strategic focus for managing the business and developing management talents. Source: Nankervis, Campton and Baird (2002, p. 42) APPENDIX 3: Strategic training and development initiatives and their implications STRATEGIC TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT INITIVESIMPLICATIONS Diversify the learning portfolioUse new technology such as the internet for training Facilitate informal learning Provide more personalized learning opportunities Expand who is trainedTrain customers, suppliers and employees Offer more learning opportunities to non-managerial employees Accelerate the pace of employee learningQuickly identify needs and provide a high-quality learning solution Reduce the time to develop training programs Facilitate access to learning resources on an as-needed basis Improve customer serviceEnsure that employees have product and service knowledge Ensure that employees have skills needed to interact with customers Ensure that employees understand their roles and decision making authority Provide development opportunities and communicate to employeesEnsure that employees have opportunities to develop Ensure that employees understand career opportunities and personal growth opportunities Ensure that training and development addresses employees need in current job as well as growth opportunities Capture and share knowledgeCapture insight and information from knowledge, skills, abilities, or competencies Logically organize and store information Provide methods to make information available (e. g. resources guides, websites) Align training and development with the company’s strategic decisionsIdentify needed knowledge, skills, abilities, or competencies Ensure that current training and development programs support the company’s strategic needs Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer of trainingRemove constraints to learning, such as lack of time, resources, and equipment Dedicate physical space to encourage teamwork, collaboration, creativity, and knowledge sharing Ensure that employees understand the importance of learning Ensure that managers and peers are supportive of training, development and learning Source: Noe (2005, p. 46) APPENDIX 4: Strategic reward system at Southwest Airlines With the dawn of the 21st century, technological, political, regulatory, demographic and economic forces unleashed in the past will continue to exert pressures on organizations to change to ensure their survival and success. Initiating and sustaining successful change require considerable thought and action on related supportive structures and systems. Organizations and their subsystems, including critical human resource management systems, have to become increasingly strategic to succeed in an environment that is in constant flux. That is, functional and unit strategies must be aligned with overall firm strategy to enhance organizational effectiveness. It is a widely held view that strategic compensation systems, an integral aspect of human resource management, are vital in ensuring desired employee behaviors and enhanced firm performance. This article provides an overview of strategic rewards and a detailed discussion of rewards at Southwest Airlines (SWA), including implications for management. The Need for Strategic Reward Systems Traditional rewards systems usually have a large proportion of the total package as base pay and just a small portion tied to employee performance as reflected in a periodic performance appraisal. Such systems emphasize Tayloristic-type management structures and systems, including functional and hierarchical differentiation in organizational structures, rigid supervisory control and strict compliance with rules. The traditional structures have changed considerably over the past few decades and will continue to do so as organizations attempt to reinvent themselves. This has led to a call for the implementation of new and more strategic rewards systems, whereby an organizations rewards systems are aligned with overall organizational strategy. Although traditional rewards continue to be used by the majority of North American organizations, there is some evidence that strategic reward systems are being implemented at an increasing rate. These strategic rewards, categorized by some researchers as the new pay,3 include performance based variable pay (individual and group based), skill-based pay (or competency- or knowledge based plans), broad banding, team-based pay and recognition programs. In general, the empirical evidence on the effectiveness of these reward systems suggests that the new pay strategies are related to increased employee productivity and firm performance. 4 It should be noted, however, that for some of these programs, such as broad banding and team-based pay, the empirical evidence on their effectiveness is sparse. Challenges Given the relatively strong rationale for strategic organizational rewards, why are not most, if not all, companies implementing them? There are many reasons. First, some managers lack the political will to implement changes in compensation systems that have been in place for decades. Second, there are some inherent difficulties in implementing strategic rewards. For instance, employees who do not trust management may view variable pay with suspicion. In fact, unions have generally opposed strategic reward systems based on the perception that, by reducing the proportion of an established base pay, such systems would place too much control in the hands of management. Finally, managers sometimes incorrectly perceive strategic rewards to be more costly than traditional rewards. These challenges are, however, not insurmountable. In fact, as the case study illustrates, SWA has successfully wrestled with these challenges. With appropriate supportive systems and structures, the prospects for strategic reward systems for organizations in North America appear bright for the next few decades. In fact, organizations may not have a choice if they are to successfully compete in the new marketplace. SWAs Philosophy and Strategy SWA was launched in 1971 by Herb Kelleher, its charismatic former CEO and president and now chairman of the Board of Directors, and Rollin King, a friend of Kelleher and later a board member. The company was based on the simple idea that people would fly an airline that took passengers directly where they wanted to go, when they wanted to get there, for as little money as possible, in a fun-filled environment. The airline should provide lower cost point-to-point services delivered with more efficiency and service than any of the other major airlines. The airline began with only three planes servicing three cities in Texas. Thirty years later, SWA now flies more than 64 million passengers to 58 cities in 30 states, 2,700 times a day. Over time, SWA has become the envy of the airline industry (see Exhibit 1). In fact, other airlines have unashamedly tried to imitate SW. Ns policies and strategies-with limited success. Furthermore, as airlines reel under the pressures of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, SWA is the only major airline that continues to be profitable. These accomplishments take on additional meaning because they were achieved in an industry historically regarded as one of the most turbulent, rocked by forces such as deregulation, mergers and alliances, high fuel costs, oil embargos, labor conflicts and more recently, terrorism. SWA is one of the most heavily unionized airlines, with approximately 81% of its 33,000 employees covered by union contracts. So what is SWAs recipe for success? According to industry analysts and Herb Kelleher himself, it is the culture of the firm, especially its dedication to its employees. 5 As Kelleher states, Ask anyone at Southwest for the secret of the companys success, and you are guaranteed to get the same response: the people. It is the dedication and zeal of the companys employees that have made it a premier customer service organization. Nothing comes ahead of your people. 6 Several aspects of its people-oriented culture are worth noting. Employees have considerable freedom and responsibility a nd a high level of employee involvement in decision making. The company hires the right people-those who match/fit the organization. It places an emphasis on training and flexibility in using the skills of its employees, and it uses strategic compensation and reward systems. Strategic Reward Systems Southwests compensation and reward systems are considered strategically oriented, even though most of the employees are covered by collective bargaining contracts. As one author noted, SWPs reward systems are viewed as a process for supporting and reinforcing the airlines philosophy ence salaries, variable compensation, and recognition programs are part of the process of management and highly integrated with the things leaders and people do on a day-to-day basis. 7 For analytical purposes, strategic rewards may be classified into four groups: strategic base pay, strategic benefits, strategic incentives and strategic recognition programs. EXHIBIT I Strategic Base Pay Base pay is covered largely by union contracts; however, the collective-bargaining process and end results/final contract may be viewed as extremely strategic. One of the key aspects of SWNs strategy is to retain valued employees and secure long-term commitment. These objectives are attained, in part, though seniority and job security clauses in the collective-bargaining agreement. In general, negotiated agreements reflect pay levels consistent with or slightly below market wages and salaries. This helps to keep labor costs in line with the companys low-cost provider strategy. Nevertheless, employees can share in the company success through various contingent compensation programs, thereby increasing their overall pay. In fact, many of SWAs employees are millionaires, including all of those who started with the company in 1971. The airline industry is one of the most conflict ridden industries, with seemingly never-ending labor disputes. Thus, one of SWAs strategy is to reduce such conflicts. However, this can only be achieved in an environment of trust and compromise. It is this perspective that the history making 10-year contract, signed in 1995 with its pilot union, must be viewed. In terms of executive compensation, the CEO is paid at below the median of the market for executives in companies of similar size. Other senior managers are compensated slightly above the market, but they retain a smaller portion of the companys stock. In this manner, company executives are relatively underpaid in cash compensation, but they are committed to the companys long-term financial success and growth through stock ownership. Employees and executives have the same opportunities for stock ownership. Strategic Benefits The list of employee benefits offered by SWA is truly impressive. It includes both traditional programs and a few innovative initiatives. For instance, like many other companies, SWA offers medical insurance, dental insurance, vision coverage, life insurance, long-term disability insurance, dependent care, adoption assistance and mental health assistance, among others. Many of these are at no cost to the employee. Furthermore, employees and their family fly free with SWA and enjoy discounted travel with other carriers. Employees also receive thoughtful gifts on major life achievements and a chance to celebrate often (see Exhibit 2). One of the key concepts behind this array of benefits is the assurance that employees matter at SWA and that the company will do its utmost to take care of its most important stakeholder. Benefits help to reinforce the organizations strategic intent of valuing its employees. EXHIBIT 2 Strategic Incentives The two main contingent or variable pay systems are the corporate-wide profit-sharing program and the employee stock purchase plan. The profit-sharing program, initiated in 1973, is strategic in that it encourages employees to keep costs as low as possible (thus likely higher profits), a key aspect of company strategy. Furthermore, it allows employees to share in the success of the organization. Profits are shared equally based on employee earnings and company profits, with those who work longer hours or fly extra trips receiving a larger portion of the profit-sharing payouts. Traditionally, the program is composed of a cash component, as well as a deferral to retirement account; however, as a result of employee requests, beginning in 1990 the total payout was made on a deferral basis, thereby increasing the retirement benefits of the employees. This is important in an organization that actively promotes long-term commitment from its employees. Employees are offered several investment options, including company stock, enabling many retirees to become quite wealthy. The companys employee stock purchase plan allows all employees and managers to share in the risks and success of the company. In addition to the profit-sharing investment options, employees may purchase stock from payroll deductions at a discount through the employee stock purchase plan. In fact, through these purchases, employees now own about 12% of the company. The pilot contract allows for even greater investments in the company through stock options. Employees are acutely aware that the firms performance is pivotal to their pocketbooks. In fact, the stock price is displayed in each SWA facility so as to allow the employees to keep a constant track of SWAs and their own destiny. Strategic Recognition Programs Strategic recognition programs abound at SWA. Many of these programs are specifically designed to encourage and reinforce desired behaviors and, consequently, company strategy. In fact, these programs have limited the need for more variable pay programs. Strategic recognition programs are at both the corporate and local unit levels, and reward and celebrate exemplary service and behaviors, as well as employees birthdays, anniversaries and so forth. Even though many of these programs originated and are managed at the local level, a few key characteristics emerge. They all enjoy the support of top management, with senior executives including the CEO often gracing the reward ceremonies; they mean something to employees/winners; and they encourage behaviors linked to firm strategy. Some of the thought processes and effects of these programs may be gleaned from their descriptions. These include the Heroes of the Heart program, the Presidents awards, and the Winning Spirit awards. The Heroes of the Heart program was initiated by SWAs Culture Committee in 1992. The committee wanted to devise a way to honor unsung heroes-the behind the scenes employees who customers rarely see. A subcommittee representing a wide variety of departments was established to find a unique way to honor such employees, resulting in the Heroes of the Heart recognition program. Each year, one group is selected for its outstanding efforts in serving and supporting employees in other parts of the company. The winner of the award is kept secret until Valentines Day, when the announcement is made with much pomp and ceremony at the companys headquarters in Dallas. The name of the winning group is painted on one of SWAs aircraft that carries the Heroes of the Heart insignia. An article is also run in the companys in-flight magazine, as well as its newsletter. The Presidents Awards are also given annually to employees who demonstrate values and virtues embodied in the firms strategy: showing compassion for customers, untiring support for coworkers, leading by example, keeping promises and following through, bringing fun to the job and embracing change. Each winner is given a plaque written by his or her vice president, a monetary reward and a collage of photos taken during the award ceremony. The photos of the winners are also published in the companys newsletter. The Winning Spirit Awards are given out every month to 10 to 12 employees whose actions reflect the companys values and strateg y. These awards are given to employees, nominated by colleagues and/or by customers, across SWAs system. A broad-based committee makes the final decision. Each winner is invited to the companys headquarters where the CEO reads the letter of nomination and gives a Winning Spirit lapel pin to him or her. The winner also receives a framed photo with the CEO as a follow-up gift, and an article is published in the companys newsletter. There are several other awards/recognition programs at SWA, including programs such as Together We Make It Great, Ticket to the Future, Walk a Mile, Helping Hands, Stuck on Service, and Go See Do and such awards as Joe Cool Award, Top Wrench Award, Superstars, A Shining Star and Voice Award. These exhibit similar characteristics as the above in that they promote behaviors pivotal in achieving the firms goals and strategy. The overall effects of these recognition programs and awards on SWAs bottom line is not clear; however, as Herb Kelleher stated, the case for these programs lies in the long-term effects. If you were a statistician you wouldnt [have recognition programs], because youd say, well, we could save money if we didnt do it. Southwest Airlines has the best customer complaint record in the American airline industry and who can say what that is worth? I could sit in my office one afternoon and cut SWAs budget substantially by cutting these things. But thats like cutting out your heart. 9 It is this attitude that keeps the company ticking all the way to the bank. Implications for Management There is no universal right reward strategy, and every reward system will not be equally effective. Nevertheless, a review of the literature, including relevant case studies, reveals certain core principles that can help to make reward strategies more effective. Many of these principles are exemplified in the SWA case described in this article. First, it is important that the reward is linked to what is important for the organization. That is, as the SWA case illustrates, the reward system must be aligned with organizational philosophy and strategy. In this way, the organization will encourage and reinforce behaviors and values that are crucial for success. Second, the planning and delivery of these rewards must explicitly demonstrate commitment from organizational leaders. Leaders and employees must be involved in the development of the rewards, the process must be trusted as being fair, adequate resources must be budgeted and the final announcement and delivery must convey a message that the reward is important. In SWAs case, the CEO and other executives spend considerable time and effort to ensure that these conditions are met. Third, these rewards must have meaning and value. Winning these awards must be a significant achievement, and this must be communicated throughout the organization. Winners must feel proud about their achievements, and the organization must glorify the effort. For instance, at SWA, the name of the winning team in the Heroes of the Heart program is painted on one of the airlines carriers and the effort of the winning team is communicated throughout the organization. Fourth, there must be a supportive organizational culture for these rewards to be effective. That is, there must be trust, a pervasive sense that related systems are fair and an unequivocal perception that effort is truly appreciated. Furthermore, the culture must ensure friendly competition. Also, the criteria for winning and the judging process must be clear and effectively communicated to all employees. Finally, there must be a continuous evaluation of the effectiveness of new reward systems and strategies. This implies that changes must be made to those not working at optimal levels, and the company must constantly introduce new and exciting awards. Of course, the costs of these programs must be continuously evaluated to ensure that they contribute more than what they cost the organization Source: Singh (2002)